Military Power of the Roman Army

Military Power of the Roman Army OCdt A. Lopez-Espinosa   One of the most iconic images of the Roman Empire is that of the Roman soldier; a visual representation of the Empires power and its willingness to exercise it. Curiously, the popular image of the Roman soldier is not entirely accurate, in that the idealized image that most hold is singular and constant in nature, yet the Roman army was anything but, undergoing many changes in equipment and composition throughout the reign of ancient Rome. In fact, few things remained the same as the years went on; save for the Roman armys tradition of discipline and order, the adoption of new tactics and organizational structures was a defining feature of the Roman military, and here lies the source of the Roman armys superiority.[1] The Roman armys power came from its adaptability, which allowed it to react to new challenges presented by opponents, and from its tradition of strict discipline, which resulted in better trained forces with increased tactical and strategic capabilities. The effects of these factors can be seen in the many campaigns in which Romes forces participated, with the Romans adapting their equipment, tactics, and formations, and adopting those of its enemies, along with their great discipline being important contributors to their success.[2] In Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and Their Decline, Montesquieu states that, the circumstance which contributed most to render the Romans masters of the world was, that having contended successively against all nations, they invariably renounced their own usages as soon as they found better (20), thus effectively identifying one of the Roman armys primary sources of power.[3] Unlike many of the armies of the time, the Romans had no qualms about changing their own practices in order to more effectively combat an enemy, or to even adopt those of other nations that they deemed to be effective. This made it so that the Roman army became not just more experienced with every encounter, but better in any number of practical ways, with changes to their own methods and adoption of enemy tactics and equipment. Ultimately, the Romans military might was so great because it was composed of the strengths of every nation they had defeated. This virtue of adaptability was seen in some of its earliest examples with Romulus adopting the Sabines buckler, which was larger and therefore provided more protection than the Argive buckler that he previously used.[4] While to the modern reader this may seem far from a revolutionary idea, it was at the time, and as such conceded an exceptional advantage to the Romans. As remarked by Montesquieu and translated in A Treatise on the S cience of War and Fortification, It is remarkable, that the nations vanquished by the Romans never inquired into the causes of their repeated defeats; but persevered in the use of their weapons and institutions to the last moment of their political existence (OConnor, 71).[5] Clearly, this doctrine of assimilation and adaptation was fairly unique for its time, and thereby allowed the Roman Legions to continuously evolve, with new tactics, equipment, and training. An even greater testament to the adaptability of the Romans was that they did not only assimilate or adapt to the innovations of the armies after having defeated them, but would do so throughout a campaign as well, learning from every defeat in order to ultimately take victory back. A good example of this was upon encountering the elephants of Pyrrhus, where the unfamiliar animals routed the Roman cavalry, their horses, before they got near the animals, were terrified and ran away with their riders (Plutarch, XVII.3), but the Romans allowed this to happen only once.[6] In response, they first supplied the weakness of their cavalry by taking away the bridles from the horses, [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] and afterwards by mixing velites with their cavalry proper (Montesquieu, 55).[7] The Romans strategy of adaptation and adoption showed clear results on the battlefield time and time again. In this way, many a campaign that seemed lost at first was ultimately reclaimed by them, careful to ascertain in what respects their enemy might possess some superiority over them; they immediately took action accordingly (Montesquieu, 54), and thereby turn the tides in their favour once more.[8] In short, a great factor in the Roman armys success was its doctrine of constant evolution: if someone was doing something better, do what they are doing. In this way, the Roman army continuously evolved into a force that had the best traits of all powers in the area; as summarized by Josephus: If any nation enjoyed any particular advantage [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] they at once availed themselves of the same. They did not neglect to provide themselves with Numidian horses, Cretan archers, Balearic slingmen, and Rhodian ships. In fine, no nation ever prepared for war with so much prudence, or carried it on with so much audacity (Montesquieu, 56).[9] The Romans exercised another great advantage over their contemporaries: discipline. Many of the armies of their time being composed of non-professional soldiers, and those that did have standing armies had them composed of barbarians and undisciplined troops. As such, it would often come about that the Romans claimed victory despite being grossly outnumbered, [Roman] troops always being the better disciplined, it was likely, even in the most unfortunate combats, that they would rally in part, or that the enemy would somewhere be thrown into disorder [and] although overborne in the beginning [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦], they finally wrested victory from their hands (Montesquieu, 54).[10] This great discipline was of the utmost importance to the Roman armys success, and so it was instilled from the moment that a man would enlist. They began training at military schools, increasing physical strength, dexterity, and weapons handling, with the most famous of these being the Campus Martius in ancient Rome.[11] All of this contributed to the Roman soldier becoming the best version of himself, which in turn resulted in a greater esprit de corps and pride, and ultimately a greater willingness to fight. This transferred directly to the battlefield, where the Roman forces would rarely break formation despite being presented with an overwhelming enemy, and whose formations were therefore powerful and resilient enough to overcome these same enemies. The discipline that Roman soldiers exhibited came from two factors, one being the risk of punishment, and the other being Roman pride, with each being effective in their own right. The pride that Romans felt in their place in the military was an effective component in maintaining order amongst the troops by being preventative; a Roman soldier did not wish to forsake his duty because of his pride. This could be seen in the rarity of Roman desertions, which resulted from the fact that soldiers drawn from the bosom of a people so proud, so haughty, so confident of dominating other peoples, could little think so far undervaluing themselves as to cease to be Romans (Montesquieu, 53).[12] This pride went beyond retention and increased morale and combat effectiveness, as this pride allowed a Roman soldier to believe in himself and his brothers in arms all the more.[13] The other source of Roman military discipline stemmed from the threat of punishment for those who were lacking. This began from the earliest days of a soldiers career; when performance was unsatisfactory they were punished accordingly, and so it became that corporal punishment to enforce discipline was part of a soldiers way of life (Saller, 136).[14] Despite corporal punishment becoming the norm for these soldiers, there existed far more severe punishments that served as extreme deterrents for the most extreme cases of a soldiers misconduct, the most famous of these being the decimation of a unit. As described by Polybius: If the same thing ever happens to large bodies, and if entire maniples desert their posts when exceedingly hard pressed, the officers refrain from inflicting the bastinado or the death penalty on all, but find a solution of the difficulty which is both salutary and terror-striking. The tribune assembles the legion, and brings up those guilty of leaving the ranks, reproaches them sharply, and finally chooses by lots sometimes five, sometimes eight, sometimes twenty of the offenders, so adjusting the number thus chosen that they form as near as possible the tenth part of those guilty of cowardice. Those on whom the lot falls are bastinadoed mercilessly in the manner above described; the rest receive rations of barley instead of wheat and are ordered to encamp outside the camp on an unprotected spot. As therefore the danger and dread of drawing the fatal lot affects all equally, as it is uncertain on whom it will fall; and as the public disgrace of receiving barley rations falls on all alike, this practice is that best calculated to both inspire fear and to correct the mischief. (Polybius, 38)[15] This punishment is exemplary of the array of consequences that could befall a soldier who lacked discipline; if ones pride was not motivation enough, then these would be. Clearly, both methods of encouraging discipline amongst Roman troops were effective, and in turn this discipline was a powerful asset of the Roman army. The Roman armys unmatched discipline on the battlefield proved itself to be a source of strength and a great advantage time and time again. Especially against barbaric forces, even when outnumbered the Romans would hold, and the undisciplined enemy forces would be routed despite their numerical advantage, and they would thereby finally [wrest] victory from their hands (Montesquieu, 54).[16] The Roman Empires military might was what allowed it to expand and maintain its power and influence, and so the Empire was only as strong as its army. The Roman armys power came from their willingness to adapt and their strict doctrine of discipline, and this is further apparent in how the armies of subsequent eras were eager to adopt these same ideals, and when doing so became far more successful. References   Goldsworthy, Adrian. 2003. The Complete Roman Army. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd. Montesquieu, and Jehu Baker. 1882. Montesquieus Considerations on the Causes of the Grandeur and Decadence of the Romans. New York: D. Appleton and Company. OConnor, John M. 1817. A Treatise on the Science of War and Fortification. New York: J. Seymour. Plutarch. n.d. Life of Pyrrhus. Polybius. n.d. Book 6. Saller, Richard P. 1997. Patriarchy, Property and Death in the Roman Family. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [1] Adrian Goldsworthy, The Complete Roman Army (London: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 2003). [2] Montesquieu and Jehu Baker, Montesquieus Considerations on the Causes of the Grandeur and Decadence of the Romans (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1882), 54. [3] Ibid, 20. [4] Ibid, 20. [5] John OConnor, A Treatise on the Science of War and Fortification (New York: J. Seymour, 1817), 71. [6] Plutarch, Life of Pyrrhus (n.d.), XVII.3. [7] Montesquieu and Jehu Baker, Montesquieus Considerations on the Causes of the Grandeur and Decadence of the Romans (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1882), 55. [8] Ibid, 54. [9] Ibid, 56. [10] Ibid, 54. [11] Ibid, 49-51. [12] Ibid, 53. [13] Ibid, 53-54. [14] Richard P. Saller, Patriarchy, Property and Death in the Roman Family (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 136. [15] Polybius, Book VI (n.d.), 38. [16] Montesquieu and Jehu Baker, Montesquieus Considerations on the Causes of the Grandeur and Decadence of the Romans (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1882), 54.

Language and Intimacy

Kanye East 03/15/2013 English Language and Intimacy Language defines the type of person we are. It has an affect on our choices as well as our lifestyle. Depending on friends, family, and others we talk to, our choice on language tends to vary. Our decisions in life, sometimes, are influenced by the language we use and our surroundings. Language has become a way of seeing life in a different perspective. But can language effect intimacy? Family intimacy to be exact. Richard Rodriguez, a writer and public speaker, expertly illustrates his own experience with this in his autobiography, Hunger of Memory.Rodriguez’s childhood was particularly unique given the fact that while he was born and raised in the United States, he was strongly influenced in the ethnic environment of a Spanish family. Although the reader is introduced to only a short excerpt from the autobiography, he learns a great deal about Rodriguez’s family and his relationship to it, his conflict of speaking    English versus Spanish, and the paradox that became evident as he used English as his primary language. Since learning English, young Rodriguez noted the lack of intimacy there was in his home.Did the understanding of a new language affect the very close family? While I read this autobiography, there were tons of ideas that struck me. It was very interesting because so many of the different parts could relate to my life. Being born and raised in America, English was automatically my first language. Nevertheless, my parents were keen on making me and my siblings learn their native tongue, my fathers Yemeni culture and my mothers Turkish culture and most importantly, our religion. As soon as they can, my parents enrolled me and my siblings in Arabic school and Islamic studies.There we learned how to read, write and fluently speak Arabic and also memorize and study the Holy Quran. At home, my mother schooled us on the Turkish language. The essence of my childhood was of culture and language but as me and my siblings got older, the language faded. Our once perfectly spoken Turkish and Arabic, broken. I couldn’t deny the fact that my Arabic was not as strong as before but it became the most evident to me when my grandparents came over from overseas. They only came one time before, when I was younger and knew the language of their tongue.The news of them coming to our house from Yemen brought me to the basement, going through stacks of old coloring books and photos desperately looking for my old Arabic books. Remembering the pages and pages of Arabic greetings and phrases, I looked even harder. After finally finding it at the bottom and a hidden stack of books, I sat. The rush of nostalgia came back but when I opened my mouth to read, it was a stuttered mess. The words I once read so fluently were now what seemed a calligraphy of memory. At this point, I knew the book wasn’t going to do much for me.Practicing the phrases I already knew, and said occ asionally, I found more and more ways to make them sound like their not all I know. Ignoring the fact that they were. The day came and by this point I wanted to get the humiliation and disappointment over with. As I walked downstairs to greet them, familiar voices and smells of incents filled the air. Their smiles and hugs erased all the worry. And as we sat there listening to them laugh and reminisce with my father, me and my siblings all joined in on the conversation.With the language of intimacy. This autobiography triggered many thoughts on language and intimacy. Of all possible human qualities, the one that wields the most power is the ability to use, understand and communicate effectively through language. A proficient use of language allows us to clearly communicate an exact idea from one person to another person or group of people. This precise science of being able to convey exactly what you want equates to the acquisition of power. As strong and powerful as language is, It didn’t affect intimacy.

Steps to Take to Get Into Law School

Getting into law school can feel like an overwhelming process, especially at the beginning. You might feel like youre looking at a mountain way too high to climb. But scaling a mountain begins with just one step, then another and another, and eventually, those steps take you to the top. Here are a few that will lead you to acceptance by a law school.   Difficulty: N/A Time Required: 4 years Heres How Go to college.All law schools require that entering students hold at least a bachelors degree. You should attend the best college you possible and achieve the highest grades possible. Your GPA will be one of the two most important factors in your application, but you dont have to major in prelaw.Choose your undergraduate major and courses  in areas in which you think youll excel. Lay out a  timeline for how you can best prepare for law school during your undergrad years.Take the LSAT.The second most important factor in your law school application is your LSAT score. If youre currently in college, the best times to take the LSAT are the summer after your junior year or the fall of your senior year. is the best time to take the LSAT. Take it the summer or fall before the fall during which you want to start law school if youve already graduated.Prepare well and be sure to read up on how schools handle multiple LSAT scores before you decide to retake the LSAT. You should also registe r with LSDAS at this time.Choose where youre going to apply.There are many factors you should consider when youre deciding where to apply to law school. Consider visiting schools that interest you -- and pay at least some attention to law school rankings.Write your personal statement.Your personal statement comes in third in importance behind your LSAT score and your GPA. Start by brainstorming with some writing prompts and get writing! Research some tips for writing a great personal statement, being sure to avoid certain topics and common mistakes.Finish your applications well in advance of the deadline.Make sure to ask for recommendations early enough that your referees have plenty of time to write outstanding letters. Also, write any additional statements you might need, such as a Why X Law School Statement and/or an addendum. Request transcripts and make sure everything the law schools want in your application files is in there well in advance of the deadline.After youve complet ed all the above steps in an orderly fashion, you can be confident that you have maximized your chances of getting into law school. Good luck! Tips Start preparing for applying to law schools as soon as youve decided to do so.Dont wait until the last minute to send in applications. Many schools have rolling admissions policies, which means they accept students throughout the admissions process.Have someone with a good eye for detail proofread your application packet, especially your personal statement.

Violence Between Cops And Civilians - 956 Words

In today’s society, violence is prevalent and the amount of violence per day is rising rapidly. Violence that may lead to the death of family, friends and loved ones. Even more in today’s society there is more violence between the police and just regular civilians. Cases that involve police brutality and violence range from Samuel DuBose, Eric Garner, Micheal Brown and Tamir Rice (Akkoc, The Telegraph). What really happens in this violent interaction between cops and civilians? The public wants the answers to the questions they may have. There are many different opinions that individuals may have about police and police brutality. But is the government really doing enough to find the truth about what really happens in situations that involve police brutality and the abuse that may happen to a law enforcement agent? The government is putting in enough time in order to find the truth out about the deaths of law enforcement agents and innocent civilians that didn’t do anything wrong in a violent situations. The government is also informing the public on what happened in the situations and they are trying to get the community more educated and involved in the violent instances. The United States federal government is demanding a reform of police in the country. Everyone in this country needs answers quickly before the violence continues. What is the government doing to speed the process in the reform? â€Å"In December 2014, Presdient Obama proposed $263 million in federal fundingShow MoreRelatedThe Fight For Cameras : Police Officers Should Wear Body Cameras1236 Words   |  5 Pagesattention against the nation s law enforcement. Michael Brown was shot and killed and the whereabouts of what actually happened were very unclear. Was it an accident? Was it intentional? 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